Bringing Evidence-Based Interventions into the Schools: An Examination of Organizational Factors and Implementation Outcomes

Despite interest in the use of evidence-based prevention programs by school districts, theory and research remain limited on how to move these programs into general practice with high-quality implementation (Elliott & Mihalic, 2004; Domitrovich & Greenberg, 2000; Schoenwald & Hoagwood, 2001). This paper aims to promote and improve research on the quality of implementation of preventive interventions in schools. The paper describes a three-level framework for considering the implementation quality of school-based interventions. Research on successful implementation of whole-school interventions and additional synthesis of evidence pertaining to program structures would further advance the antibullying evidence base.

Evidence-Based Practice Summaries

Consistent with this definition, proficiency trended toward significantly predicting competence, such that more proficient schools were more likely to achieve competence as measured by knowledge tests and role plays. Examination of the relationship between the SIC and organizational constructs indicated that proficiency was the most relevant organizational predictor of the duration of implementation outcomes for a computer-assisted SBI. Importantly, these differences may not be due to geography, but instead due to quality of pre-implementation behavior and differences in organizational structure.

Predictors of implementation success and competence

Study staff were trained to document implementation activities for data collection (i.e. recording who was involved in activities and the date on which activities were completed for https://www.nj.gov/education/esser/arp/ each school). The workshop included didactic training including role-plays, hands-on support on using the computer program, and other practical skills needed to deliver the intervention with fidelity. Each subscale is reported using T-scores, which have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10, and are based on a normative sample of 100 mental health organizations (Glisson et al., 2008). The OSC quantitatively evaluates the social culture and climate of mental health and social services organizations. As defined by the developer (LS) and implementation team of the Camp Cope-A-Lot model, successful implementation was assessed by whether at least one provider at each site initiated treatment with a child using the evidence-based protocol. Within each stage are implementation activities tailored to describe the implementation strategy for Camp Cope-A-Lot (e.g. meeting with schools, contacting principals).

What is PBIS?

• The influence of possible moderators was determined by calculating Q values (heterogeneity between groups) and their corresponding p values, based on the Z-values of the different moderator categories (Borenstein et al. 2010).
• Dusenbury and colleagues (2005) used the term ‘quality of process’ to highlight the importance of engaging participants in an intervention and the reciprocal nature of interactions that are necessary for learning and behavior change.
• Taking an intersectionality approach offers a valuable perspective for studying intervention development and evaluation, but it also presents several challenges.
• The broad purpose of PBIS is to improve the effectiveness, efficiency, and equity of schools and other agencies.
• Six of the included articles reported findings from one evaluation study of the whole school intervention Positive Action.
• Examination of the relationship between the SIC and organizational constructs indicated that proficiency was the most relevant organizational predictor of the duration of implementation outcomes for a computer-assisted SBI.

Any disagreements arising during the quality appraisal process were addressed through consultation with the corresponding author (SL). The quality appraisal was performed by two independent researchers (CYC and ZYM) via the Revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2) (44). The complete search methods for all electronic databases are detailed in Supplementary material Table 1. Notably, the included studies must be published in English and have been peer-reviewed. The search period ranged from the creation of each database to January 2025. The methodologies used in published related randomized controlled trials (RCTs) vary, resulting in differences in the effect sizes of SBIs on resilience in children and adolescents.

Further, the quality of engagement during trainings, and satisfaction with the content and how it is delivered, are likely to be important predictors of the quality with which implementers deliver the intervention. In a related manner, teachers may be less committed to implementing interventions aimed at depression than those aimed at classroom behavior management, because the symptoms of depression are typically less disruptive for the classroom environment than are externalizing behavior problems (Bradshaw, Buckley et al, in press). In addition, both principal leadership and teacher’s perceptions of the quality of the coaching independently predicted implementation quality. Teachers who reported high burnout and high efficacy reported high-quality implementation, whereas teachers who reported high burnout and low efficacy showed substantially poorer implementation. In the education literature, efficacy describes teachers’ perceived ability to conduct instructional practices, manage the classroom environment, and affect change in student behaviors (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001).

Some researchers have examined the personal characteristics of implementers as potential predictors of positive intervention effects. Although psychological mindedness can vary considerably between individuals, such awareness can be helpful in understanding both negative reactions (such as anxiety, reluctance, and anger) and positive reactions (like enthusiasm or confidence) in one’s own self and in intervention participants. Lack of experience in implementing preventive interventions, or level of comfort with certain methods (such as interactive teaching) may increase implementers’ anxiety when they are called upon to implement such interventions (Ennett et al, 2003). Studies of the relationship between the professional characteristics of teachers and program implementation attitudes and behaviors offer mixed findings. A classroom climate characterized by high levels of peer or teacher–student conflict may negatively influence program implementation and program effectiveness.

Samples and settings can be pooled across multiple studies examining the same practice or program to meet the large, multisite sample criteria. In addition, team members want to spend more of their time providing interventions that have been identified as most likely to produce the results the team desires. A growing body of research suggests that for optimal impact, social and emotional skill development needs to be embedded within a whole school, multi-modal approach. There is also a need for investment in professional development and learning for building organisational capacity in adopting a whole school approach to social and emotional learning.